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WebTwo things about the oil industry, however, bothered Rockefeller right from the start: the appalling waste and the fluctuating prices. [77] In 1887, Congress created the Interstate Commerce Commission which was tasked with enforcing equal rates for all railroad freight, but by then Standard depended more on pipeline transport. [80] He went on a massive buying spree acquiring leases for crude oil production in Ohio, Indiana, and West Virginia, as the original Pennsylvania oil fields began to play out. Rockefeller liked the Ormond Beach area so much that after four seasons at the hotel, he bought an estate in Ormond Beach called The Casements. "[48], Instead of wanting to eliminate them, Rockefeller saw himself as the industry's savior, "an angel of mercy" absorbing the weak and making the industry as a whole stronger, more efficient, and more competitive. He quickly found success as it became the largest refinery in the area, and That fact enabled the company to negotiate with railroads for favoured rates on its shipments of oil. [45], A market existed for the refined oil in the form of kerosene. Striking miners were forced to abandon their homes in company towns and lived in tent cities erected by the union, such as the tent city at Ludlow, a railway stop north of Trinidad.[94]. American industrialist and philanthropist [17941877]. The union was forced to discontinue strike benefits in February 1915. John D. Rockefeller and his son, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. He wrote and published his memoirs beginning in 1908. [75] Additional fields were discovered in Burma and Java. Under the protection of the National Guard, some miners returned to work and some strikebreakers, imported from the eastern coalfields, joined them as Guard troops protecting their movements. American industrialist John D. Rockefeller built his first oil refinery near Cleveland and in 1870 incorporated the Standard Oil Company. [44] Likewise, Rockefeller's refineries hired their own plumbers, cutting the cost of pipe-laying in half. WebBy 1858, Rockefeller had more responsibilities at Hewitt & Tuttle. WebROCKEFELLER, JOHN D. (8 July 1839-23 May 1937), industrialist and philanthropist, rose from his position as an assistant bookkeeper for a Cleveland commission merchant to become one of the wealthiest men in the U.S. through his efforts in developing the STANDARD OIL CO. Born on a farm near Richford, NY. She documented the company's espionage, price wars, heavy-handed marketing tactics, and courtroom evasions. [1] According to some methods of wealth calculation, Rockefeller's net worth over the last decades of his life would easily place him as the wealthiest known person in recent history. "[72] Over time, foreign competition and new finds abroad eroded his dominance. John D. Rockefeller was an American business magnate and philanthropist. A Baptist preacher once encouraged him to "make as much money as he could, and then give away as much as he could". It changed its name to Rockefeller University in 1965, after expanding its mission to include graduate education. Early in his life, he regularly went with his siblings and mother Eliza to the local Baptist churchthe Erie Street Baptist Church (later the Euclid Avenue Baptist Church)an independent Baptist church which eventually came to associate with the Northern Baptist Convention (19071950; modern American Baptist Churches USA). [133] The railroads competed fiercely for traffic and, in an attempt to create a cartel to control freight rates, formed the South Improvement Company offering special deals to bulk customers like Standard Oil, outside the main oil centers. While most refiners dumped oil byproducts into nearby rivers, Rockefeller wisely hired research-and-development men to produce waxes, paving materials, and detergents from the seemingly unmarketable sludge that was discarded. American business magnate and philanthropist (18391937), For other people named John D. Rockefeller, see, Business partnership and Civil War service, Strike of 191314 and the Ludlow Massacre. Public hostility toward monopolies, of which Standard was the best known, caused some countries to enact anti-monopoly laws. In total Rockefeller donated about $530million. [24], Eliza was a homemaker and a devout Baptist who struggled to maintain a semblance of stability at home, as Bill was frequently gone for extended periods. 186365 Rockefeller builds his first oil refinery, near Cleveland. For these reasons, Rockefeller and other heads of monopolistic companies were called robber barons by their critics. Standard Oil was the first great business trust in the United States. [citation needed] In February 1865, in what was later described by oil industry historian Daniel Yergin as a "critical" action, Rockefeller bought out the Clark brothers for $72,500 (equivalent to $1million[37] in 2021 dollars) at auction and established the firm of Rockefeller & Andrews. US Gross Domestic Product 19131939 Stuck on Stupid: U.S. Economy. Pennsylvania revoked the cartel's charter, and non-preferential rates were restored for the time being. In 1972 Congress honored his contributions by creating a memorial parkway between Yellowstone and Grand Teton national parks, which bears his name. Flagler expanded it to accommodate 600 guests and the hotel soon became one in a series of Gilded Age hotels catering to passengers aboard Flagler's Florida East Coast Railway. Bill once bragged, "I cheat my boys every chance I get. [108] John Rockefeller was impressed by the vision of the school and removed the debt from the school. His hair never grew back, but other health complaints subsided as he lightened his workload. In the same letter, Rockefeller writes that he has "always stood for whatever measure seemed at the time to give promise of promoting temperance." A devout Baptist, Rockefeller turned his attention increasingly during the 1890s to charities and benevolence; after 1897 he devoted himself completely to philanthropy. [citation needed], Rockefeller created the Rockefeller Foundation in 1913[119] to continue and expand the scope of the work of the Sanitary Commission,[114] which was closed in 1915. [28] John did his share of the regular household chores and earned extra money raising turkeys, selling potatoes and candy, and eventually lending small sums of money to neighbors. [58] Eventually, even his former antagonists, Pratt and Rogers, saw the futility of continuing to compete against Standard Oil; in 1874, they made a secret agreement with Rockefeller to be acquired. He even gave dimes as a playful gesture to wealthy men, such as tire mogul Harvey Firestone. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. That is, two years after the dissolution of Standard Oil. Due to reduced demand for coal, resulting from an economic downturn, many of CF&I's coal mines never reopened and many men were thrown out of work. His contemporaries described him as reserved, earnest, religious, methodical, and discreet. Rockefeller was the eldest son and second of six children born to traveling physician and snake-oil salesman William (Big Bill) Avery Rockefeller and Eliza Davison Rockefeller. [39] Rockefeller went steadily ahead in business from there, making money each year of his career. The Ohio businessman John D. Rockefeller entered the oil industry in the 1860s and in 1870, and founded Standard Oil with some other business partners. John Davison Rockefeller Sr. (July 8, 1839 May 23, 1937) was an American business magnate and philanthropist. His General Education Board made a dramatic impact by funding the recommendations of the Flexner Report of 1910. He believed that measure to be prohibition, as he and his father donated 350,000 to "all branches of the Anti-Saloon League, Federal and State." [a] Oil was used throughout the country as a light source until the introduction of electricity, and as a fuel after the invention of the automobile. Without her keen advice, I would be a poor man."[40]. [7][pageneeded][8][b], Rockefeller spent much of the last 40 years of his life in retirement at Kykuit, his estate in Westchester County, New York, defining the structure of modern philanthropy, along with other key industrialists such as steel magnate Andrew Carnegie. American industrialist John D. Rockefeller built his first oil refinery near Cleveland and in 1870 incorporated the Standard Oil Company. They would blow holes in the ground and gather up the oil as they could, often leading to creeks and rivers flowing with wasted oil in the place of water. I only know he conceived the idea. Within two years it is the largest refinery in the area. Pratt's son, Charles Millard Pratt, became secretary of Standard Oil. American industrialist John D. Rockefeller built his first oil refinery near Cleveland and in 1870 incorporated the Standard Oil Company. Rockefeller later commented:[53]. As a percentage of the United States' GDP, no other American fortuneincluding those of Bill Gates or Sam Waltonwould even come close. WebAfter dropping out of high school, taking one business class at Folsom Mercantile College, and working as a bookkeeper, Rockefeller establishes his first business, which supplies goods such as hay, grain, and meats. Tar was used for paving, naphtha shipped to gas plants. [83] The University of Chicago has long accorded John D. Rockefeller the official designation of "Founder," and that accolade may offer some historical compensation to Rockefeller's more conventional and hostile sobriquet of "robber baron." Within two years it is the largest refinery in the area. "[30], When he was a boy, his family moved to Moravia, New York, and to Owego, New York, in 1851, where he attended Owego Academy. [62] The railroad, seeing Standard's incursion into the transportation and pipeline fields, struck back and formed a subsidiary to buy and build oil refineries and pipelines. "[105], Rockefeller and his advisers invented the conditional grant, which required the recipient to "root the institution in the affections of as many people as possible who, as contributors, become personally concerned, and thereafter may be counted on to give to the institution their watchful interest and cooperation".[106]. After the war, he donated land for the United Nations headquarters, a gift that figured prominently in the decision to WebJohn D. Rockefeller. [86] The court ruled that the trust originated in illegal monopoly practices and ordered it to be broken up into 34 new companies. Clark initiated the idea of the partnership and offered $2,000 towards the goal. 187072 Billionaire John D. Rockefeller (July 8, 1839 to May 23, 1937) continues to rank as one of the richest men in modern times. The family relocated to Strongsville, a town near Cleveland, Ohio, in 1853, and six years laterafter attending and later dropping out of Clevelands Central High School, taking a single business class at Folsom Mercantile College, and working as a bookkeeperRockefeller established his first enterprise, a commission business dealing in hay, grain, meats, and other goods. [23] In between the births of Lucy and John, Bill and his mistress and housekeeper Nancy Brown had a daughter named Clorinda who died young. John D. Rockefeller is reported to be the wealthiest man in America with about $150,000,000 and an income of $25,000 per day. WebJohn D. Rockefeller. Founded by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. (1839-1937), the Standard Oil Company is one of the world's richest corporations. The refinery was directly owned by Andrews, Clark & Company, which was composed of Clark & Rockefeller, chemist Samuel Andrews, and M. B. Clark's two brothers. [71] Its share of world oil refining topped out above 90% but slowly dropped to about 80% for the rest of the century. By 1868, with Rockefeller continuing practices of borrowing and reinvesting profits, controlling costs, and using refineries' waste, the company owned two Cleveland refineries and a marketing subsidiary in New York; it was the largest oil refinery in the world. Seldom has history produced such a contradictory figure. Due to be drafted to serve the Union in the Civil War in 1863, the 23-year-old Rockefeller did what many men of means had done: He paid for someone to serve in his place. We correct them as soon as they come to our knowledge. The capital expenditures for a refinery at that time were small around $1,000 to $1,500 and requiring only a few men to operate. ", Rockefeller was an abolitionist who voted for President Abraham Lincoln and supported the then-new Republican Party. Rockefeller retained his nominal title as president until 1911 and he kept his stock. In 1901, U.S. Steel, then controlled by J. Pierpont Morgan, having bought Andrew Carnegie's steel assets, offered to buy Standard's iron interests as well. [115] In keeping with the historic missions of the Baptists, it was especially active in supporting black schools in the South. Economic historian Robert Whaples warns against ignoring the secrets of his business success: [R]elentless cost cutting and efficiency improvements, boldness in betting on the long-term prospects of the industry while others were willing to take quick profits, and impressive abilities to spot and reward talent, delegate tasks, and manage a growing empire. If we absorb them, it surely will bring up another. [44] In the kerosene industry, the company replaced the old distribution system with its own vertical system. She also put up with his philandering and his double life, which included bigamy. In full retirement at age 63, Rockefeller earned over $58million in investments in 1902. [48], Undeterred, though vilified for the first time by the press, Rockefeller continued with his self-reinforcing cycle of buying the least efficient competing refiners, improving the efficiency of his operations, pressing for discounts on oil shipments, undercutting his competition, making secret deals, raising investment pools, and buying rivals out. After the war, he donated land for the United Nations headquarters, a gift that figured prominently in the decision to What was John D. Rockefeller remembered for? WebIn the 1860s John D. Rockefeller took note of the expansion of oil production in western Pennsylvania and built an oil refinery near Cleveland, Ohio, in 1863. Public hostility toward monopolies, of which Standard was the best known, caused some countries to enact anti-monopoly laws. Philanthropy Roundtable - Biography of John Rockefeller Sr. John D. Rockefeller - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11), John D. Rockefeller - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up). A. D. John. They thus established the first major U.S. trust and set a pattern of organization for other monopolies. [79], In the 1890s, Rockefeller expanded into iron ore and ore transportation, forcing a collision with steel magnate Andrew Carnegie, and their competition became a major subject of the newspapers and cartoonists. [10] His foundations pioneered developments in medical research and were instrumental in the near-eradication of hookworm[11] and yellow fever[12] in the United States. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Rockefeller founded the Standard Oil Company in 1870. Public hostility toward monopolies, of which Standard was the best known, caused some countries to enact anti-monopoly laws. [citation needed], Rockefeller, aged 86, wrote the following words to sum up his life:[144]. It had become the richest, biggest, most feared business in the world, seemingly immune to the boom and bust of the business cycle, consistently making profits year after year. Both sides purchased substantial arms and ammunition. His final year provided him $58 a month. Born in upstate New York, Rockefeller entered the oil business by investing in a Cleveland, Ohio refinery in 1863. For with the measure you use, it will be measured to you. By the time he was twenty, his charity exceeded ten percent of his income. The University of Chicago has long accorded John D. Rockefeller the official designation of "Founder," and that accolade may offer some historical compensation to Rockefeller's more conventional and hostile sobriquet of "robber baron." [82], Upon his ascent to the presidency, Theodore Roosevelt initiated dozens of suits under the Sherman Antitrust Act and coaxed reforms out of Congress. Strikebreakers (called "scabs") were threatened and sometimes attacked. Pennzoil and Chevron have remained separate companies. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). John D. Rockefeller was an American business magnate and philanthropist. His company and business practices came under criticism, particularly in the writings of author Ida Tarbell . "I wanted to go in the army and do my part," Rockefeller said. [96] When testifying on the Ludlow Massacre, and asked what action he would have taken as Director, John D. Rockefeller Jr. stated, "I would have taken no action. He would describe the University of Chicago as "the best investment I ever made." Billionaire John D. Rockefeller (July 8, 1839 to May 23, 1937) continues to rank as one of the richest men in modern times. [72] Despite the formation of the trust and its perceived immunity from all competition, by the 1880s Standard Oil had passed its peak of power over the world oil market. They include politicians and writers, some of whom served Rockefeller's interests, and some of whom built their careers by fighting Rockefeller and the "robber barons". As a result, Rockefeller and his associates owned dozens of separate corporations, each of which operated in just one state; the management of the whole enterprise was rather unwieldy. Standard Oil adapted by developing a European presence, expanding into natural gas production in the U.S., and then producing gasoline for automobiles, which until then had been considered a waste product. Critics found his writing to be sanitized and disingenuous and thought that statements such as "the underlying, essential element of success in business are to follow the established laws of high-class dealing" seemed to be at odds with his true business methods. He also gave a grant to the American Baptist Missionaries foreign mission board, the American Baptist Foreign Mission Society in establishing Central Philippine University, the first Baptist and second American university in Asia, in 1905 in the heavily Catholic Philippines. Ohio was especially vigorous in applying its state antitrust laws, and finally forced a separation of Standard Oil of Ohio from the rest of the company in 1892, the first step in the dissolution of the trust. Due to be drafted to serve the Union in the Civil War in 1863, the 23-year-old Rockefeller did what many men of means had done: He paid for someone to serve in his place. 187072 We were in a new business, and if I had not stayed it must have stoppedand with so many dependent on it. Webrmond Beach, Fla., May 23.--John D. Rockefeller Sr., who wanted to live until July 9, 1939, when he would have rounded out a century of life, died at 4:05 A.M. here today at The Casements, his Winter home, a little more than two years and a month from his cherished goal. August 2, 1896 An article documents Rockefellers life and his rise to wealth, from poverty to possessing millions of dollars. [76], Standard Oil moved its headquarters to New York City at 26 Broadway, and Rockefeller became a central figure in the city's business community. By then the trust still had a 70% market share of the refined oil market but only 14% of the U.S. crude oil supply. Most failed, but those who struck oil did not even need to be efficient. "But it was simply out of the question. [citation needed], In 1864, Rockefeller married Laura Celestia "Cettie" Spelman (18391915), daughter of Harvey Buell Spelman and Lucy Henry. John D Rockefeller was a businessman who emerged as one of the men with largest fortune in history. [97], Against long-circulating speculations that his family has French roots, genealogists proved the German origin of Rockefeller and traced them back to the early 17th century. Great-grandson John Davison "Jay" Rockefeller IV served from 1985 until 2015 as a Democratic Senator from West Virginia after serving as governor of West Virginia,[100] and another Winthrop served as lieutenant governor of Arkansas for a decade. Sensing the commercial potential of the expanding oil production in western Pennsylvania in the early 1860s, he built his first oil refinery, near Cleveland, in 1863. [112][113][16][14][15], Rockefeller's General Education Board, founded in 1903,[114] was established to promote education at all levels everywhere in the country. [107] His wife Laura Spelman Rockefeller, was dedicated to civil rights and equality for women. [125] Through this, he supported work in the social studies; this was later absorbed into the Rockefeller Foundation. Rockefeller was also given the duties of collecting debts when Hewitt instructed him to do so. "[34] He was particularly adept at calculating transportation costs, which served him well later in his career. Despite personal threats and constant pleas for charity, Rockefeller took the new elevated train to his downtown office daily. Rather than try to influence the price of crude oil directly, Standard Oil had been exercising indirect control by altering oil storage charges to suit market conditions. He paid towards the freedom of two slaves[102] and donated to a Roman Catholic orphanage. [18] Religion was a guiding force throughout his life and he believed it to be the source of his success. By 1882 Standard Oil had a near monopoly on the oil business in the United States. [90] Analysis of the company's operations by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. showed a need for substantially more funds which were provided in exchange for acquisition of CF&I's subsidiaries such as the Colorado and Wyoming Railway Company, the Crystal River Railroad Company, and possibly the Rocky Mountain Coal and Iron Company. As he grew rich, his donations became more generous, especially to his church in Cleveland; nevertheless, it was demolished in 1925, and replaced with another building.[101]. [27] His church was later affiliated with the Northern Baptist Convention, which formed from American Baptists in the North with ties to their historic missions to establish schools and colleges for freedmen in the South after the American Civil War. The University of Chicago has long accorded John D. Rockefeller the official designation of "Founder," and that accolade may offer some historical compensation to Rockefeller's more conventional and hostile sobriquet of "robber baron." [6][full citation needed] That was his peak net worth, and amounts to US$24.7billion (in 2021 dollars; inflation-adjusted). [31] He was a well-behaved, serious, and studious boy despite his father's absences and frequent family moves. After the war, he donated land for the United Nations headquarters, a gift that figured prominently in the decision to Today known as Spelman College, the school is an all women Historically Black College or University in Atlanta, Georgia, named after Laura's family. [142] According to his New York Times obituary, "it was estimated after Mr. Rockefeller retired from business that he had accumulated close to $1,500,000,000 out of the earnings of the Standard Oil trust and out of his other investments. A. D. John. Because of Rockefellers emphasis on economical operations, Standard prospered and began to buy out its competitors until, by 1872, it controlled nearly all the refineries in Cleveland. [120] He gave $182million to the foundation,[107] which focused on public health, medical training, and the arts. Throughout his life, Bill was notorious for conducting schemes. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. From the different reports and the different historians opinions, I feel that Rockefeller and his business negatively impacted society. Continuing to apply his work ethic and efficiency, Rockefeller quickly expanded the company to be the most profitable refiner in Ohio. Rockefeller had entered the raucous oil business during the Civil War, when oil often sold for a dollar a gallon. He quickly found success as it became the largest refinery in the area, and Founded by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. (1839-1937), the Standard Oil Company is one of the world's richest corporations. [63], Standard countered, held back its shipments, and, with the help of other railroads, started a price war that dramatically reduced freight payments and caused labor unrest. The oil fortunes of 1894 were not larger than steel fortunes, banking fortunes, and railroad fortunes made in similar periods. While traveling the South, he would donate large sums of money to churches belonging to the Southern Baptist Convention, various Black churches, as well as other Christian denominations. John D. Rockefeller was an American business magnate and philanthropist. Updates? The daily management of the trust was turned over to John Dustin Archbold and Rockefeller bought a new estate, Pocantico Hills, north of New York City, turning more time to leisure activities including the new sports of bicycling and golf. "[22] Unshackled by conventional morality, he led a vagabond existence and returned to his family infrequently. John D. Rockefeller is reported to be the wealthiest man in America with about $150,000,000 and an income of $25,000 per day. [55], Part of this scheme was the announcement of sharply increased freight charges. He was advised primarily by Frederick Taylor Gates[103] after 1891,[104] and, after 1897, also by his son. During church service, his mother would urge him to contribute his few pennies to the congregation. "[49] He was well-positioned to take advantage of postwar prosperity and the great expansion westward fostered by the growth of railroads and an oil-fueled economy. Coal had previously been used to extract kerosene, but its tedious extraction process and high price prevented broad use. He gave money to the Union cause, as did many rich Northerners who avoided combat. In 1870 Rockefeller established the Standard Oil Company. Instead of using his father's method of presence to collect debts, Rockefeller relied on a persistent pestering approach. August 2, 1896 An article documents Rockefellers life and his rise to wealth, from poverty to possessing millions of dollars. Rockefeller entered the fledgling Oil industry in 1863, by investing in a factory in Cleveland, Ohio. [33] He worked long hours and delighted, as he later recalled, in "all the methods and systems of the office. WebThe Rockefeller family (/ r k f l r /) is an American industrial, political, and banking family that owns one of the world's largest fortunes.The fortune was made in the American petroleum industry during the late 19th and early 20th centuries by brothers John D. Rockefeller and William A. Rockefeller Jr., primarily through Standard Oil (the I would have deplored the necessity which compelled the officers of the company to resort to such measures to supplement the State forces to maintain law and order." His business hurt many of his workers and many other small businesses with the monopoly that he created. He was buried in Lake View Cemetery in Cleveland.[136]. [84] Although her work prompted a huge backlash against the company, Tarbell stated she was surprised at its magnitude. Rockefeller entered the fledgling Oil industry in 1863, by investing in a factory in Cleveland, Ohio. His company and business practices came under criticism, particularly in the writings of author Ida Tarbell . Johann Peter Rockenfeller (baptized September 27, 1682, in the Protestant church of Rengsdorf) immigrated in 1723 from Altwied (today a district of Neuwied, Rhineland-Palatinate) with three children to North America and settled down in Germantown, Pennsylvania. Mr. Rockefeller financed the construction of museums in Mesa Verde, Grand Canyon, and Yellowstone national parks. A major New York refiner, Charles Pratt and Company, headed by Charles Pratt and Henry H. Rogers, led the opposition to this plan, and railroads soon backed off. On this day in 1870, Rockefeller incorporated the company that would make him almost inconceivably rich and, in many ways, begin the modern age of oil. Rockefeller finally gave up his dream of controlling all the world's oil refining; he admitted later, "We realized that public sentiment would be against us if we actually refined all the oil. WebIn 1973 Rockefeller founded the Trilateral Commission, a private international organization designed to confront the challenges posed by globalization and to encourage greater cooperation between the United States and its principal allies (Canada, Japan, and the countries of western Europe). [85], Rockefeller and his son continued to consolidate their oil interests as best they could until New Jersey, in 1909, changed its incorporation laws to effectively allow a re-creation of the trust in the form of a single holding company. But it is the assertion that the Standard magnates gained their wealth by appropriating "the property of others" that most challenges our attention. He became an assistant bookkeeper at age 16 and went into several business partnerships beginning at age 20, concentrating his business on oil refining. In less than four months in 1872, in what was later known as "The Cleveland Conquest" or "The Cleveland Massacre," Standard Oil absorbed 22 of its 26 Cleveland competitors. In February 1914, a substantial portion of the troops were withdrawn, but a large contingent remained at Ludlow. 186365 Rockefeller builds his first oil refinery, near Cleveland. Biography Reference Center, EBSCO, United States Department of Labor: Bureau of Labor Statistics historical inflation calculator, United States Commission on Industrial Relations, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, "John D. Rockefeller: The Richest Man in the World", http://www.usstuckonstupid.com/sos_charts.php#gdp, "Giving It Away, Then and Now The New York Times", Weekly Centralian Link (June 15, 2018) CPU holds Faculty and Staff Conference 2018, "The Philanthropists: John D. Rockefeller Tim Challies", "John D. Rockefeller | Biography, Facts, & Death", "People & Events: John D. Rockefeller Senior, 18391937", "Proceedings of the Special Committee on Railroads, Appointed under a resolution of the Assembly to investigate alleged abuses in the Management of Railroads chartered by the State of New York (Vol.