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Changes in the metabolism of choline or phosphatidylcholine can also negatively impact certain biochemical pathways that lead to NAFLD. In: H. SM, Caudill MA, eds. Have a question? Vanek VW, Borum P, Buchman A, Fessler TA, Howard L, Jeejeebhoy K, et al. Here are some choline-rich foods to add to your diet to support your brain health. PLoS One 2012;7:e43448. When these choline-containing compounds are ingested, pancreatic and mucosal enzymes liberate free choline from about half of the fat-soluble forms and some water-soluble forms [5]. They do not represent the therapeutic amounts seen in studies. Foods providing 20% or more of the DV are considered to be high sources of a nutrient, but foods providing lower percentages of the DV also contribute to a healthful diet. [4,5] However, it is unclear what is TMAOs relationship to CVD, or if it is just a marker of an underlying disease process that leads to CVD. Many studies do not assess the status of all B vitamins, which can confound results and obscure the true relationship between choline and the observed outcome. Choline is nutrient that helps your body detoxify. only 10% of Americans consume an adequate amount of choline. And the best way to get optimal levels of this nutrient in your diet is to consume liver, If you (or someone in your family) are among those who simply cant stand liver, there is a good chance you will still LOVE our Superfood Paleo Bolognese recipe. How much choline should I take for fatty liver? U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. Dont Drink Alcohol. What is choline most beneficial for?Choline helps in the process of methylation, which is used to create DNA, for nerve signaling, and for detoxification. Sometimes its possible to reverse nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, especially in the early stages. Holm PI, Ueland PM, Kvalheim G, Lien EA. Impacts and Outlook of Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. If you choose to take choline supplements, its best to purchase one that is made from whole food sources and is of very high quality. 1. Choline deficiency during Doses up to 1 gram daily for children 1-8 years of age, 2 grams daily for children 9-13, and 3 grams daily for children 14-18, are not likely to cause unwanted side effects. Yes, You Can: Repair and Reverse Your Fatty Liver Disease 1 Take It Easy On The Sugar. According to Dr. 2 Eat More Liver and Eggs. Liver and eggs are the highest known food source 3 Supplement With Choline and B-Vitamins. If youre not able to get enough choline through dietary [. [, Brody LC, Conley M, Cox C, Kirke PN, McKeever MP, Mills JL, et al. Plasma homocysteine, dietary B vitamins, betaine, and choline and risk of peripheral artery disease. Maternal choline concentrations during pregnancy and choline-related genetic variants as risk factors for neural tube defects. Choline and risk of neural tube defects in a folate-fortified population. And one nutrient that is critical is choline. Choline, especially phosphatidylcholine, is essential for transporting lipids from the liver [1]. Eggs are a nutritional powerhouse. Choline has been suggested to both protect and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Choline, along with the B vitamin folate, helps to lower blood levels of homocysteine by converting it to methionine. The recommended dosage of choline for adults is 550-3500 mg per day. Some studies have shown that choline and lecithin can help to reduce blood cholesterol and risk for heart disease, but different studies have yielded inconsistent results, so more research is still needed before doctors will begin to prescribe choline for its ability to lower LDL (bad) cholesterol and trigylcerides. women who ate 930 mg of choline per day had 33% lower levels of cortisol compared to women who ate only 430 mg daily. Millard HR, Musani SK, Dibaba DT, Talegawkar SA, Taylor HA, Tucker KL, Bidulescu A. Dietary choline and betaine; associations with subclinical markers of cardiovascular disease risk and incidence of CVD, coronary heart disease and stroke: the Jackson Heart Study. They help produce neurotransmitters. Early second trimester maternal plasma choline and betaine are related to measures of early cognitive development in term infants. This amount can be from food, supplements, or a combination of the two. Genes involved in the metabolism of choline, folate, and methionine play a role in the pathways for choline production and use [24,25]. (12). The more veggies and the greater the variety the better. Webjustin powell nba draft. Future studies are needed to clarify the relationship between choline intakes and cognitive function and determine whether choline supplements might benefit patients with Alzheimers disease or other forms of dementia. Drink water, tea, or coffee (with little or no sugar). Neuron plasticity refers to the brains ability to build new neuron connections, and choline is thought to be very important for supporting brain elasticity and plasticity. The Nutrition Source does not recommend or endorse any products. The average adult needs between 425 to 550 milligrams of choline per day. The most important thing is to change the diet, quit alcohol, smoke, should not eat greasy food. And the best way to promote healthy genetic expression is to avoid chemicals and other contaminants and give your body the nutrients it needs. Individuals with alcoholic fatty liver disease can improveeven reversethe damage if they stop drinking alcohol. Specifically, a cross-sectional study of 56,195 Chinese adults aged 4075 years found an inverse relationship between dietary choline intakes and risk of NAFLD based on 24-hour dietary recall [47]. Weight loss is key to preventing complications of fatty liver. The recommended dosage of choline for adults is 550-3500 mg per day. There is a link between choline deficiency and liver disease. In adults, the average daily choline intake from foods and beverages is 402 mg in men and 278 mg in women. Pregnant and lactating This is a fan made channel, for any questions please visit Harry's channel directly. Today, I want to share with you my secrets to reduce sugar Accordingto the United States Department of Agriculture, Americans consume around 0.7 pounds Giloy: The Ayurvedic Herb that Aids Digestion, Detoxification & More, What Is the Boiled Egg Diet? Sex and menopausal status influence human dietary requirements for the nutrient choline. Join the ODS Email List. Some small randomized intervention trials have shown that choline supplements improve cognitive performance in adults [30,41]. And they have been shown to reduce inflammation and boost detoxification. Vanek VW, Borum P, Buchman A, Fessler TA, Howard L, Jeejeebhoy K, Kochevar M, Shenkin A, Valentine CJ, Novel Nutrient Task Force, Parenteral MultiVitamin and MultiTrace Element Working Group, American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (ASPEN) Board of Directors. Some experts have therefore theorized that consuming higher levels of phosphatidylcholine could reduce the progression of dementia in people with Alzheimers disease [38]. Aberrant estrogen regulation of PEMT results in choline deficiency-associated liver dysfunction. Most people in the United States consume less than the AI for choline. June 2, 2022
Includes a variety of protein foods such as lean meats; poultry; eggs; seafood; beans, peas, and lentils; nuts and seeds; and soy products. Avoid more harmful fat sources such as saturated or trans fats. (2), Related: Giloy: The Ayurvedic Herb that Aids Digestion, Detoxification & More, There is some evidence that most people dont acquire enough choline in their diets, despite eating choline-rich food sources, because some choline is not actually absorbed. Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): Average daily level of intake sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97%98%) healthy individuals; often used to plan nutritionally adequate diets for individuals. Your healthcare provider can help you figure out the best way to get the choline you need. The following 12 foods provide high levels of choline naturally, in addition to many other nutrients. It prevents fat from accumulating in your liver. Choline is a source of methyl groups needed for many steps in metabolism. Turkey, chicken, beef, and broccoli also provide a boost. 1. are clickable links to medically peer-reviewed studies. WebSo what drugs do you take with grade 1 fatty liver? Choline belongs in a pregnancy diet. [, Higgins JP, Flicker L. Lecithin for dementia and cognitive impairment. [10] NAFLD occurs most often in individuals with excess weight or obesity, and the main treatment is to reduce body fat with calorie restriction and exercise. A choline deficiency may also play a part in age-related cognitive decline, including memory loss and Alzheimers disease. Sharma K. Cholinesterase inhibitors as Alzheimers therapeutics. According to an analysis of 20072008 NHANES data, black males of all ages had lower mean choline intakes than their white and Hispanic counterparts, but choline intakes did not differ substantially among females of different races/ethnicities [10]. Choline is needed to create DNA that is responsible for building out entire body structure. This section focuses on three conditions in which choline might play a role: cardiovascular and peripheral artery disease, neurological disorders, and NAFLD. Dietary Reference Intakes: Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline. Additionally, choline is used in muscle nerve functioning and may be useful in preventing fatigue and muscle aches or pains following exercise. Plasma choline levels do not decline below 50% of normal, even in individuals who have not eaten for more than a week [3]. Gastroenterology 2009;137:S119-28. Choline and folate are known to be key nutrients involved in the methyl group processes, which the body uses to form genetic material that helps build every system within the body. It was originally studied for its ability to prevent fat and cholesterol from building up in the liver. In: Erdman JW, Macdonald IA, Zeisel SH, eds. Kelley Herring, founder of Healing Gourmet, is a natural nutrition enthusiast with a background in biochemistry. While it may seem intimidating at first, counting macros is a common Erythritol is now one of the most popular natural zero-calorie sweeteners available. Choline is found in a variety of foods. J Nutr Biochem 2008;19:158-65. You can take glutathione, you can take N-acetylcysteine, lipoic acid, milk thistle, curcumin. Avoid sugary drinks. Its also important for the functioning of a key neurotransmitter called acetylcholine, which similarly helps nerves to communicate and muscles to move, acts as ananti-agingneurotransmitter, and performs other basic processes. WebWhen taken by mouth: Choline is likely safe for most people when taken in doses below 3.5 grams daily. Another unique aspect of choline is that it contains chemical structures called methyl groups. Eating for a healthy body and a healthy planet No reproduction, transmission or display is permitted without the written permissions of Health-e Enterprises, LLC. Dietary phosphatidylcholine and risk of all-cause and cardiovascular-specific mortality among US women and men. Intestinal microbial metabolism of phosphatidylcholine and cardiovascular risk. Intake recommendations for choline and other nutrients are provided in the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) developed by the Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) of the Institute of Medicine (IOM) [2]. [, Tang WH, Wang Z, Levison BS, Koeth RA, Britt EB, Fu X, et al. The Food and Nutrition Board established an Adequate Intake (AI) for choline based on the prevention of liver damage. AI: The Adequate Intake for men and women ages 19+ years is 550 mg and 425 mg daily, respectively. For pregnancy and lactation, the AI is 450 mg and 550 mg daily, respectively. Benefits, Signs of Deficiency and Food Sources, Daniel Fast: Benefits for Your Spiritual, Emotional and Physical Health, 15 Fermented Foods for a Healthy Gut and Overall Health, 9 Proven Black Seed Oil Benefits that Boost Your Health, L-Glutamine Benefits Leaky Gut & Metabolism, Chia Seeds Benefits: The Omega-3, Protein-Packed Superfood, Apple Cider Vinegar Benefits for Weight Loss, Skin Health, Cholesterol & More. Its a food that people either love or hate. Choline may also be helpful in improving energy levels, your mood, sleep cycles and recovery time following strenuous activity. 1. You have to be sober and give your liver time to heal. How much choline is needed to reverse fatty liver disease?. [, Shaw GM, Finnell RH, Blom HJ, Carmichael SL, Vollset SE, Yang W, et al. Therefore, in choline deficiency, fat accumulates in the liver, which can result in NAFLD [44,45]. Its also worth noting that choline can be found in soy products, especially soy lecithin. WebCholine: The Forgotten B Vitamin. We encourage you to talk to your health care providers (doctor, registered dietitian, pharmacist, etc.) [, Wu BT, Innis SM, Mulder KA, Dyer RA, King DJ. Just like B vitamins, choline plays a similar role in terms ofsupporting energy and brain function, as well askeeping the metabolism active. & Yates C. M. Effects of choline and lecithin on CSF choline levels and on cognitive functioning in patients with presenile dementia of the Alzheimer type. [, Caudill MA. In a cross-sectional study of 664 adults and children from the Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis Clinical Research Network, postmenopausal women who had nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (an extreme form of NAFLD involving liver inflammation and fibrosis) and a choline intake less than 50% of the AI had more severe fibrosis, but the results showed no relationship between choline intake and degree of liver steatosis [48]. [, Poly C, Massaro JM, Seshadri S, Wolf PA, Cho E, Krall E, et al. Free choline, phosphocholine, and glycerophosphocholine are absorbed in the small intestine, enter the portal circulation, and are stored in the liver, where they are subsequently phosphorylated and distributed throughout the body to make cell membranes [1-3]. ), Walnuts: Choose This Brainy Nut For Health. [2] So, go ahead and crack an egg or two into the pan that omelet or sunny-side-up may just be what your liver needs. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1998. But choline may also act negatively toward the heart. WebIf you want to cleanse and detox a liver problem, then, you dont want to go low fat. Healing Gourmet is a registered trademark of Health-e Enterprises, LLC. With strict editorial sourcing guidelines, we only link to academic research institutions, reputable media sites and, when research is available, medically peer-reviewed studies. Sci Rep 2015;5:13188. Choline is needed to properly transport fat from the liver to cells throughout the body. Choline deficiency: a cause of hepatic steatosis during parenteral nutrition that can be reversed with intravenous choline supplementation. The richest sources of this vital nutrient include liver, beef, eggs, poultry and seafood. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); In this FREE RECIPE BOOK Discover How to Put Your Keto Diet on Autopilot and
High homocysteine levels are a risk factor for CVD. Superfoods, Your email address will not be published. [, Naber M, Hommel B, Colzato LS. Updated on June 24, 2022. In addition to free choline, phosphatidylcholine has been identified as a substrate for trimethylamine production by certain intestinal bacteria, thereby reducing For example, in a study of 57 adults who consumed a diet that included less than 50 mg choline per 70 kg body weight per day (<10% of the AI) for up to 42 days, 37 of the participants developed liver dysfunction [45]. Prague Med Rep 2015;116:5-15. For a reader-friendly overview of Choline, see our consumer fact sheet on Choline. Supplementation with choline has been shown to be effective in the treatment of fatty liver and other liver conditions. Washington, DC: Wiley-Blackwell; 2012:405-18. Choline does an important job of maintaining brain elasticity by working to maintain levels of acetylcholine, which naturally declines into old age. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine specifically plays a part in memory and learning, so a choline deficiency can result in poor concentration, poor memory, mood changes and other cognitive impairments, especially as someone ages. Similarly, a prospective study in 14,430 middle-aged adults in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study found that over 14 years, risk of coronary heart disease was not significantly different in the highest choline intake quartile compared to the lowest quartile [36]. Choline plays a part in transporting both cholesterol and triglycerides, two forms of important fats, from the liver to other parts of the body where they are needed. Diabetes Diet Cent Nerv Syst Agents Med Chem 2012;12:100-13. Choline and folate assist in the conversion of homocysteine, which prevents the body from accumulating too much fat and may be beneficial in cutting down on the risk of having a heart attack or stroke. [. (8). WebCan choline reverse fatty liver? By the studys end, 77 percent of the men, 80 percent of the postmenopausal women and 44 percent of the premenopausal women had developed fatty liver or muscle dysfunction. Some needed as much as 825 mg of choline daily to prevent or reverse their liver problems. Very high intakes of choline can lead to low blood pressure (hypotension) and liver toxicity. In addition, because phosphatidylcholine can serve as a phospholipid precursor, it might help support the structural integrity of neurons and thus might promote cognitive function in elderly adults [8]. Choline. The remaining fat-soluble phospholipids (phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin) are absorbed intact, incorporated into chylomicrons, and secreted into the lymphatic circulation, where they are distributed to tissues and other organs, including the brain and placenta [1,6]. Neurological disorders
WebSupplementation with choline has been shown to be effective in the treatment of fatty liver and other liver conditions. Choline. (15) Other studies show that pregnant women with a low blood level of choline have been shown to be at a higher risk for having children with neural tube defects and developmental problems. Most Americans eat less than the AI for choline but a deficiency is very rare in healthy persons, as the body can make some choline on its own. Cruciferous vegetables and certain beans are also rich in choline, and other dietary sources of choline include nuts, seeds, and whole grains. [6] There was a 26% increased risk of CVD deaths when combining data from both cohorts comparing the highest intakes of phosphatidylcholine with the lowest. Present Knowledge in Nutrition. And if you happen to be a vegetarian, youre almost certainly deficient in this vital compound. Food
This increases the risk for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), which may then progress to cirrhosis (an inflammation of liver cells, followed by thickening and hardening of liver tissue), liver cancer, or liver failure. Giving choline intravenously (by IV) helps treat this condition. In healthy adults, the concentration of choline in plasma ranges from 7 to 20 mcmol/L [2]. Choline also plays important roles in modulating gene expression, cell membrane signaling, lipid transport and metabolism, and early brain development [1,2]. A UL has not been established for choline, because a toxic level has not been observed from food sources or from longer-term intakes of high-dose supplements. Choline was first discovered in the 1930s. Its not recommended to take more than 3,500 mg of choline per day during pregnancy. Excli j 2014;13:461-90. Dosing. Soy lecithin contains choline and other molecules, including fatty acids, glycerol and phosolipids. And well also show you a super-tasty way to add liver to your familys diet and have every person at the table coming back for seconds! NAFLD involves the accumulation of lipids in the livers of people who consume less than 20 g/day ethanol and who have no other known causes of steatosis [42,43]. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2012;28:159-65. Cortisol is known as the stress hormone. And research shows that babies who are exposed to high levels in the womb have an increased risk of type-2 diabetes, high blood pressure and stress-related illness later in life. are clickable links to these studies. This fact sheet by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) provides information that should not take the place of medical advice. You should seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Superfoods, When it comes to liver, theres no middle ground. Eat a variety of whole grains (like whole-wheat bread, whole-grain pasta, and brown rice). For example, one common SNP in the PEMT gene reduces endogenous synthesis of choline in women induced by estrogen [26]. It helps your cells to communicate. Epidemiology 2009;20:714-9. WebConsuming too much alcohol can cause inflammation and swelling in the organs, which can lead to pain. There are several choices available for different types of choline supplements, some which will be more readily absorbed and used by the body, while others dont fully have the same effects. Is Lamb Healthy? But thats not all it does. However, a 2015 systematic review of 13 studies on the relationship between choline levels and neurological outcomes in adults found that choline supplements did not result in clear improvements in cognition in healthy adults [8]. For pregnancy and lactation, the AI is 450 mg and 550 mg daily, respectively. [, Yu D, Shu XO, Xiang YB, Li H, Yang G, Gao YT, et al. In todays article, we discuss the critical importance of choline. There appears to be an association with diets high in choline-rich foods and cardiovascular disease, but the reasons for this link need further study. 2016, Beef top round, separable lean only, braised, 3 ounces, Beef, ground, 93% lean meat, broiled, 3 ounces, Fish, cod, Atlantic, cooked, dry heat, 3 ounces, Potatoes, red, baked, flesh and skin, 1 large potato, Broccoli, chopped, boiled, drained, cup, Mushrooms, shiitake, cooked, cup pieces, Fish, tuna, white, canned in water, drained in solids, 3 ounces, Cauliflower, 1" pieces, boiled, drained, cup, Bread, pita, whole wheat, 1 large (6 inch diameter), Tangerine (mandarin orange), sections, cup, Apples, raw, with skin, quartered or chopped, cup. Researchers are still debating how much choline should be recommended to the public to consume each day, but the topic remains difficult to agree upon because there seems to be a wide range of needs when it comes to choline, with some people needing much more than others. WebHow Much Choline Should I Take For Fatty Liver? [2] The Food and Nutrition Board established an Adequate Intake (AI) for choline based on the prevention of liver damage. Some evidence indicates that lower plasma or serum choline levels (e.g., serum concentration of 2.77 mmol/L in midpregnancy) are associated with an increased risk of neural tube defects [21,22]. Plasma free choline, betaine and cognitive performance: the Hordaland Health Study. Am J Hum Genet 2002;71:1207-15. Choline is a macronutrient thats important for liver function, normal brain development, nerve function, muscle movement, supporting energy levels and maintaining a healthy metabolism. [, Resseguie ME, da Costa KA, Galanko JA, Patel M, Davis IJ, Zeisel SH. [, Zheng Y, Li Y, Rimm EB, Hu FB, Albert CM, Rexrode KM, et al. However, these intake levels are only minimums. 1-888-75-LIVER. In people who have low levels of choline present within their body, some studies have found that they are more at risk for experiencing liver damage and even liver failure. Effects of choline on health across the life course: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 2007;85:1275-85. Choline is a source of methyl groups needed for many steps in metabolism. Choline deficiency can cause muscle damage, liver damage, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD or hepatosteatosis) [1,2,4,15]. This ultimately interferes with normal liver function. Epigenetics
You can make a small amount of choline in your liver, but most of the choline in your body comes from To put it simply, this is the motherboard of hormone production. You dont want to. Soy lecithin is a controversial substance that is used in food products as an emulsifier and sold as supplements. 3rd ed; 2012:565-608. It is also food for beneficial gut bacteria. Without choline, lipid-soluble nutrients could not get into our cells. S. Department of Health and Human Services. The biggest benefit of choline for the liver is that it helps remove fat from the liver which in turn may help prevent non alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and liver damage (8, 10). For example, according to researchers, 50 perent of the population may have genes that increase dietary methyl requirements, and since choline is a major source of methyl processes, this can result in a choline deficiency. Some reports have shown that a percentage of the choline found in food sources isnt actually absorbed by the body, and that this may be one reason why certain people can experience a choline deficiency, especially those with liver damage since choline is processed partially in the liver. [, Finelli C, Tarantino G. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, diet and gut microbiota. (1) Choline is still being studied in order to learn more about its potential benefits and uses, but at this time, most experts agree that the amounts listed below are sufficient for producing optimal benefits without causing any harm: Some experts recommend getting even higher levels of choline in order to boost brain function and to retain memory. WebCholine is an essential nutrient that is involved in many biochemical processes, including lipid metabolism and liver function. Choline is also present in breast milk and is added to most commercial infant formulas [3,4]. Benefits, How to Follow, Risks & More, What is Betaine? Maintaining a healthy lifestyle will gradually reduce the disease. This is most likely due to genetic factors in certain people that create a higher need for choline. So, how much do you need and how do you get more of it in your diet? Incorporate physical activity into your daily routine. Our team aims to be not only thorough with its research, but also objective and unbiased. Choline was first discovered in the 1930s. As you can see, there are plenty of other sources of choline that offer many more health benefits without the risks, including wild salmon, cage-free eggs and even certain vegetables, so why not obtain most of your choline from these foods? Some experts have pointed to the fact that the types of choline that is best used by the body are CDP choline, also called Citicoline, or Alpha GPC choline. [, Sanders LM, Zeisel SH. The relation of dietary choline to cognitive performance and white-matter hyperintensity in the Framingham Offspring Cohort. Copyright 2019 Health-e Enterprises, LLC. WebYou also need choline to form the membranes that surround your bodys cells. An alcohol recovery program can help you achieve this goal. Liver is packed with nutrients, including a forgotten nutritional powerhouse called choline. Another one of the benefits of choline is its ability to keep your mind mentally sharp as you age. Eat More Liver and Eggs Liver and eggs are the highest known food source of a nutrient called choline. Need Help? Prospective study on dietary intakes of folate, betaine, and choline and cardiovascular disease risk in women. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2014:416-26. WebThe increased unsaturation in the liver lipide of choline-deficient rats appeared to be due to a higher content of dienoic fatty acids, which made up approximately 60% of the dietary lipide. WebCan choline reverse fatty liver? Choline is involved in functions that overlap with those of folate and other B vitamins. WebDerived from chylomicrons, VLDLs or extrahepatic tissues (reverse PC transport) (10. van der Veen JN , can lower the amount of dietary choline required, because it reduces the need to convert choline potentially predisposing one to fatty liver. WebCholine may help. Theres really no way to detect the source of soy lecithin, so we should assume that its extracted from GM soy, unless its labeled as organic. Any mention in this publication of a specific product or service, or recommendation from an organization or professional society, does not represent an endorsement by ODS of that product, service, or expert advice. Choline is especially presentin animal products, so vegetarians and vegans are more prone to experiencing a deficiency in choline. Best Choline For Fatty Liver Resources https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/drugs/22202-choline-supplement The ULs apply to healthy children and adults, but not to those taking high doses of choline under medical supervision. A large cohort of men and women from the Nurses Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-up Study, followed for 20-25 years, found that higher phosphatidylcholine intakes were associated with an increased risk of deaths from CVD and other causes. In three large cohorts of men and women, higher intakes of phosphatidylcholine were associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).